OPEN MEDSCIENCE REVIEW | August 11, 2025
Summary: Medical X-rays have reshaped clinical practice for more than a century, offering doctors a rapid, affordable, and widely accessible way to see inside the human body. From their serendipitous discovery by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895 to today’s digital detectors, spectral techniques, and artificial intelligence, X-ray methods have repeatedly adapted to new clinical questions and technological opportunities. This mini review explains how X-rays are produced and detected, how they interact with tissue to form useful images, and how diverse radiographic techniques are used across medicine, including musculoskeletal, chest, dental, gastrointestinal, mammographic, paediatric, and interventional applications. It discusses radiation biology, dose metrics, protection principles, and the UK regulatory context; explores image quality, quality assurance, and the digital ecosystem that allows images to flow safely through hospitals; and surveys current innovations such as photon-counting detectors and machine learning. The review closes with practical thoughts on ethics, communication with patients, global access, sustainability, and the near-term future of this constantly evolving modality.
Keywords: Röntgen discovery; X-ray physics; Digital radiography; Computed tomography; Radiation protection; Interventional radiology.
Origins and Early Adoption
The story begins in Würzburg in late 1895, when Röntgen noticed that a screen coated with barium platinocyanide glowed when his discharge tube was energised, even though it was wrapped in opaque black cardboard. He recognised that unknown rays were traversing the intervening air and coined the term X-rays to reflect their mysterious nature. Within weeks, he produced the now-famous image of his wife’s hand, where bones and a wedding ring stood out starkly. Newspapers across Europe and North America captivated the public with the idea of vision beyond skin and clothing, and surgeons quickly understood that a broken bone could be assessed without opening the limb.
By 1896, hospitals in London, Paris, Glasgow, Vienna, and New York were improvising apparatus from laboratory coils and Crookes tubes. The technology spread through wartime medicine as mobile units were deployed for fracture localisation and shrapnel detection. In the early decades, there was little understanding of biological hazards. Operators sometimes suffered skin burns, ulceration, cataracts, and malignancies from chronic exposure. These tragedies led to the first protective practices, including lead shielding and restricted exposure times, and to the emergence of radiology as a medical speciality with formal training and professional bodies.
By the mid-twentieth century, advances in vacuum engineering, target materials, and film emulsions produced sharper images with shorter exposures. Fluoroscopy allowed real-time guidance for gastrointestinal studies and catheter placement. The second half of the century witnessed two major shifts: the computerisation of imaging, culminating in computed tomography (CT) in the 1970s, and the replacement of film with digital detectors from the 1990s onward. Each shift broadened the scope of questions X-rays could answer, while also prompting new debates about dose, quality, workflow, and cost.
X-Ray Physics in Brief
X-rays sit in the electromagnetic spectrum between ultraviolet light and gamma rays. Their wavelengths, typically measured in picometres to nanometres, are short enough that individual photons carry sufficient energy to eject electrons from atoms. In medical imaging, tube potentials commonly range from about 40 to 150 kilovolts. This range balances penetration, contrast, and dose for human tissues.
Two physical interactions dominate in clinical imaging. The photoelectric effect occurs when a photon transfers all of its energy to a bound electron, ejecting it and leaving a vacancy. This effect is strongly dependent on atomic number and photon energy, which is why bone (rich in calcium) appears bright while soft tissue appears grey. Compton scatter occurs when a photon transfers part of its energy to a loosely bound electron and changes direction. Scatter adds a fog-like veil that degrades contrast and can contribute to dose away from the primary beam. Grid devices, tight collimation, and optimised exposure factors help control scatter.
Attenuation through tissue follows an exponential law, so thickness matters: a thick abdomen requires more penetrating beams than a thin hand. Filtration with aluminium or copper removes low-energy photons that would be absorbed superficially without improving image quality. The task of the radiographer is to choose kilovoltage, milliampere-seconds, filtration, focus-to-detector distance, and collimation so that the image answers the clinical question while keeping exposure as low as reasonably practicable.
How X-Rays Are Produced
A medical X-ray tube is a vacuum device with a heated cathode that emits electrons and a metal anode that receives them. A high potential difference accelerates electrons across the gap. When electrons decelerate in the target, they emit bremsstrahlung radiation over a continuous range of energies; when they eject inner-shell electrons from target atoms, the refilling of those vacancies produces sharp peaks called characteristic lines. Tungsten is the standard anode material because it tolerates high temperatures and yields a useful spectrum; molybdenum and rhodium are used in mammography to fine-tune energy for soft-tissue contrast in the breast.
Rotating anodes spread heat over a larger area, allowing higher loads for short bursts, which is essential for crisp images with minimal motion blur. Tube housing incorporates oil and shielding to remove leakage radiation. Many systems include automatic exposure control chambers that terminate the exposure when the detector receives enough signal, helping standardise image density across patient sizes and projections. Generator design has progressed from simple single-phase units to high-frequency inverters that provide stable, ripple-free output, improving efficiency and consistency.
Interaction with Matter and the Origin of Contrast
The clinical usefulness of radiography stems from differences in attenuation between tissues. Bone attenuates more strongly than muscle or fat, and air-filled regions such as the lungs or bowel provide natural negative contrast. Where soft tissues are too similar to distinguish, contrast agents step in. Iodine, with its high atomic number, absorbs X-rays effectively and is soluble in water; barium suspensions coat the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract and outline its contours.
The energy spectrum also shapes image contrast. Lower kilovoltage increases the contribution of the photoelectric effect relative to Compton scatter, which can help highlight bony detail. Higher kilovoltage penetrates thicker parts and reduces dose to the skin, but can reduce contrast. The exposure triangle of kilovoltage, current–time product, and filtration is adjusted for each body part and clinical indication. Anti-scatter grids improve contrast in thicker regions by absorbing off-axis photons, though at the cost of higher exposure. Flat-panel detectors and advanced processing can recover contrast lost to scatter by modelling its distribution and subtracting it computationally.
Detectors: From Film to Direct Digital and Beyond
For most of the twentieth century, radiographs were recorded on film. Film has high spatial resolution but a narrow exposure latitude, and it requires chemical processing that delays results and creates environmental burdens. Computed radiography introduced photostimulable phosphor plates that store a latent image, later read by a laser scanner. Direct digital radiography then replaced plates with flat panels that convert X-rays to electrical signals instantly.
Two main detector families dominate: indirect conversion and direct conversion. Indirect panels use a scintillator, commonly caesium iodide, to convert X-rays to light; a photodiode array then converts the light to an electrical signal. Direct panels use a semiconductor such as amorphous selenium that converts X-rays directly to charge. Indirect detectors generally offer higher quantum efficiency for thicker patients, whereas direct detectors can achieve exquisite spatial resolution for fine details, for example, in mammography.
Photon-counting detectors are an emerging class that register individual photons and measure their energy, enabling spectral imaging without the need for dual-source or rapid kV switching. By rejecting electronic noise and weighting higher-information photons preferentially, these detectors promise sharper images and lower doses. Their wider deployment in clinical radiography is an area to watch over the next decade.
Image Formation, Processing, and Quality Metrics
Modern systems produce raw data that undergo extensive processing before radiologists see the image. Processing includes logarithmic transformation to emulate film response, noise reduction by adaptive filtering, and edge-preserving enhancement. Algorithms recognise anatomy and adjust windowing to highlight the region of interest, for example, applying different tone curves to lungs, mediastinum, and bones on a chest image. Manufacturers provide organ-specific programmes that aim for a familiar look while exploiting the wider dynamic range of digital detectors.
Image quality is often framed in terms of signal-to-noise ratio, contrast-to-noise ratio, spatial resolution, and detective quantum efficiency. Detective quantum efficiency summarises how well a detector turns incoming photons into useful image information. It depends on quantum efficiency, optical spread, electronic noise, and sampling. In practice, clinical quality depends just as much on positioning, centring, collimation, motion control, and avoidance of artefacts. A perfectly tuned detector cannot rescue a poorly positioned study, which is why radiographer expertise remains central.
Contrast Agents and Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy provides real-time imaging for procedures and functional studies. Barium sulfate remains the agent of choice for oesophageal, gastric, and colonic examinations where perforation is not suspected. Water-soluble iodinated contrast is used for urinary tract imaging, angiography, and interventional procedures. Non-ionic low-osmolar agents have improved safety and comfort compared with older ionic compounds, though vigilance is still required for contrast reactions and in patients with renal impairment.
Digital subtraction angiography is a special form of fluoroscopy that removes background structures by subtracting a pre-contrast mask from subsequent frames, allowing vessels filled with contrast to stand out. Road-mapping overlays a reference frame during catheter navigation. Flat-panel detectors with high frame rates, pulsed exposure, and last-image hold features keep dose in check while preserving temporal resolution. Collimation, filtration, and tight control of fluoroscopy time are key to maintaining safe practice.
Plain Film Radiography in Everyday Medicine
Plain radiography is the workhorse of imaging. In the emergency department, a skeletal series rapidly assesses trauma. Two orthogonal views remain the standard because a single projection can hide a fracture aligned with the beam. In orthopaedic clinics, serial radiographs chart healing, alignment, and the position of implants. Weight-bearing knee and foot views reveal joint space narrowing and deformity that are invisible when supine.
Chest radiography is performed at a staggering scale worldwide. It detects consolidation, pneumothorax, pleural effusions, cardiomegaly, interstitial patterns, and misplaced tubes or lines. The interpretation rests on a systematic review of technical factors, soft tissues, bones, mediastinum, diaphragm, lungs, and any devices present. Portable chest radiography brings imaging to the bedside in intensive care, where patient transfer is risky. Although CT has become central for many thoracic questions, the chest X-ray remains the front door to lung and heart imaging in urgent settings and primary care.
Mammography is a dedicated branch that uses low-energy X-rays and compression to reveal microcalcifications and subtle masses in the breast. Screening programmes rely on rigorous quality control, double reading, and recall pathways. Tomosynthesis extends mammography by acquiring multiple projections that reconstruct into thin slices, reducing the confusion caused by overlapping tissue.
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, often shortened to DXA, assesses bone mineral density at the hip and spine, providing a robust metric for fracture risk and guiding osteoporosis treatment. DXA uses two energy spectra to separate bone from soft tissue with a very low dose, and it has become a staple of metabolic bone clinics.
Dental and Maxillofacial Imaging
Dentistry embraced X-rays early because teeth and jaws offer ideal natural contrast. Intraoral radiographs reveal caries, periapical infection, periodontal loss, and the anatomy of roots and canals. Panoramic machines sweep around the head to produce a curved, composite view of both jaws in a single image, useful for impactions, fractures, and planning orthodontics. Cone-beam CT, a compact form of volumetric imaging, is widely used for implant planning, temporomandibular joint assessment, and complex root canal anatomy. It operates at a lower dose than conventional CT for small fields of view and provides high spatial resolution for fine bony structures.
Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary Applications
Although endoscopy and cross-sectional imaging have taken many roles, fluoroscopic barium and iodinated studies still answer crucial questions. A timed barium swallow can demonstrate motility disorders, strictures, and hiatus hernia. A contrast meal outlines gastric morphology and emptying. Small bowel follow-through and enteroclysis chart loops, stenoses, and fistulae in inflammatory bowel disease when MRI is not available or not tolerated. In the hepatobiliary sphere, percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography use fluoroscopic guidance to diagnose and treat obstruction, stones, and leaks.
Paediatric Imaging
Children are more sensitive to ionising radiation and have a longer lifetime for risk to manifest, so protocols are adapted carefully. The “Image Gently” philosophy promotes weight- and age-based exposure charts, removal of grids when possible, and vigilant collimation. Immobilisation with gentle wraps or parental assistance prevents repeats. Neonatal chest and abdomen imaging in incubators requires thoughtful geometry to avoid cut-off and to display lines and tubes clearly. For many paediatric questions, ultrasound or MRI is preferred; however, X-rays remain essential for bone injuries, congenital anomalies, and chest disease, and for follow-up of chronic conditions such as cystic fibrosis.
Interventional Radiology: Therapy Guided by X-Rays
Interventional radiology transforms imaging from diagnosis to treatment. Using fluoroscopy and angiography, clinicians navigate catheters through vessels to place stents, deliver embolic agents to tumours, control haemorrhage, or open occluded arteries. In the biliary and urinary tracts, stents relieve obstruction. In the musculoskeletal system, vertebroplasty and cement augmentation stabilise osteoporotic fractures. Image-guided biopsies obtain tissue with millimetre accuracy.
Patient benefit is substantial: smaller incisions, shorter recovery, and targeted therapy. Managing radiation is central because procedures can be lengthy. Operators pay close attention to reference air kerma, dose–area product, and skin entrance doses, altering projections, pulsing rates, and source-to-skin distances to keep exposure within safe bounds. Real-time dose maps and alerts in modern systems help avoid deterministic skin injuries.
Computed Tomography: Cross-Sectional Power
CT reconstructs cross-sectional slices from hundreds to thousands of projections around the patient. By measuring attenuation at many angles, it solves an inverse problem to produce maps of linear attenuation coefficients. Multi-detector scanners cover whole organs in seconds, freezing motion and allowing angiographic views after contrast injection. Hounsfield units provide a calibrated scale where water is zero, air is around minus one thousand, and dense bone can exceed one thousand.
Dose management is a priority in CT because exposures are higher than in plain radiography. Automatic tube current modulation, adaptive pitch, iterative and deep learning reconstructions, and organ-based shielding all contribute to the reduction. Spectral CT techniques separate materials by their energy-dependent attenuation, improving characterisation of stones, gout deposits, and iodine distribution. Cardiac CT can delineate coronary calcium and stenoses with remarkable clarity. Trauma centres rely on CT to rapidly survey the head, neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis in one visit, guiding immediate management.
Radiation Biology and Stochastic Risk
Ionising radiation deposits energy that can break DNA strands directly or indirectly through reactive species. Cells possess repair mechanisms that usually succeed, yet misrepair can lead to mutations. At the doses used in diagnostic imaging, the dominant concern is stochastic risk: the small increase in lifetime probability of malignancy. Deterministic effects, such as skin erythema or epilation, have thresholds rarely approached in diagnostic imaging but can occur in prolonged fluoroscopic procedures.
Risk communication balances honesty with reassurance. For example, a standard chest radiograph carries a dose measured in tens of microsieverts, often compared with a few days of natural background radiation. CT doses are higher and vary by protocol; informed consent processes, particularly for multiphase studies or children, explain benefits and alternatives. Understanding relative risk helps clinicians and patients make sound choices without undue anxiety.
Dose Metrics and Protection Principles
Several metrics describe dose. Air kerma measures energy transfer per unit mass in air; entrance surface air kerma is relevant for skin effects. Dose–area product integrates dose over the exposed field and correlates with stochastic risk. In CT, CTDIvol and dose–length product are reported; the latter approximates total energy imparted and can be combined with region-specific conversion factors to estimate effective dose.
Three principles underpin protection. Justification asks whether the examination will change management. Optimisation seeks the minimum exposure to achieve the clinical aim, through technique charts, automatic exposure control, filtration, and collimation. Dose limitation sets strict caps for occupational and public exposures; while patients have no numerical limit when an exam is justified, the first two principles still apply. Personal dosimetry, shielding barriers, procedural time management, and distance from the source protect staff. In the UK, practice is framed by IRR17 and IR(ME)R 2017, which define roles, responsibilities, and reporting for exposures.
Quality Assurance, Audits, and Reject Analysis
Quality assurance programmes monitor image quality, equipment performance, and radiation output. Routine tests include detector uniformity, modulation transfer function checks, laser alignment, and reproducibility of exposure. Phantom studies track contrast and noise. Calibrated dose meters verify that outputs match expectations and that automatic exposure systems behave consistently across sizes and projections.
Reject analysis reviews images that were repeated because of positioning, motion, cut-off, or exposure errors. Patterns often reveal training needs or equipment faults. Small improvements in first-time success pay dividends in dose reduction, time saved, and patient experience. Peer review and discrepancy meetings within radiology departments cultivate a learning culture and improve reporting quality.
The Digital Ecosystem: DICOM, PACS, and Workflow
The move from film to pixels ushered in the era of DICOM, a standard that describes how image data and metadata are formatted and communicated. Picture archiving and communication systems store and distribute images; radiology information systems manage scheduling, reports, and coding; and integration engines link everything to electronic patient records. This ecosystem allows instant availability across wards and clinics, tele-reporting, and robust audit trails. It also brings responsibilities for cybersecurity, access control, and data retention.
Structured reporting and natural language processing tools help produce consistent, queryable reports. Decision support at order entry can prompt the right test for the clinical question, reducing unnecessary examinations and repeat imaging. Dose tracking systems aggregate data across scanners and time, enabling outlier detection and optimisation projects.
Artificial Intelligence in Radiography and CT
Machine learning has progressed from experimental prototypes to daily tools in many departments. On the image acquisition side, AI assists with patient positioning, centring, and automatic collimation. During interpretation, algorithms triage studies that show suspected pneumothorax, intracranial haemorrhage, or pulmonary embolism so they reach a radiologist quickly. Other tools act as a second reader for mammography or flag subtle fractures on musculoskeletal films.
Deep learning reconstructions in CT reduce noise at lower exposures by learning complex priors from large datasets. Generative models fill in missing data and suppress streaks in challenging projections. Successful integration depends on careful validation, monitoring for drift, and human oversight. Far from replacing radiologists, these systems shift effort from searching for needles toward synthesising the clinical story and communicating it clearly.
Education, Roles, and the Human Factor
Radiography is a skilled profession that blends physics, anatomy, patient care, and psychology. Positioning, communication, and observation are learned through practice. Radiographers coach patients through breath-holds, manage discomfort, and spot red flags that require immediate escalation. Advanced practice roles, including reporting radiographers and image-guided proceduralists, have expanded capacity and created rewarding career pathways.
Radiologists bring interpretive depth, pattern recognition, and clinical correlation. Multidisciplinary team meetings connect imaging with treatment, for example, in cancer boards, trauma huddles, and cardiac conferences. The human factor is also about empathy: explaining what will happen, addressing worries about radiation, and adapting to cultural and accessibility needs.
Global Access and Innovation at the Point of Care
A vast number of people live in settings where access to advanced imaging is limited. Portable X-ray units powered by batteries or mains inverters bring diagnostics to rural clinics, field hospitals, and humanitarian missions. Combined with telemedicine, a radiograph taken in a remote village can be reported by a specialist hundreds of miles away. Low-cost detectors, rugged designs, and simplified interfaces are crucial. Training and maintenance matter as much as hardware. Simple measures such as clear exposure charts, pre-set projections, and protective drapes can elevate quality and safety rapidly.
Environmental Considerations and Sustainability
Digital imaging has reduced chemical processing waste, but environmental responsibility extends further. Equipment lifecycle management, energy-efficient generators, recycling of metals, and responsible disposal of lead and electronics are part of sustainable practice. Workflow optimisation reduces repeat exposures and travel between sites. Where possible, choosing an examination that answers the question with lower exposure and lower resource use aligns patient and planetary health.
Ethics, Consent, and Communication
Imaging carries ethical duties beyond technical excellence. Consent for interventional procedures and higher-dose studies should be informed and meaningful, with time for questions. Equality of access requires thoughtful scheduling, translation services, and reasonable adjustments for disability. Incidental findings can cause anxiety; clear pathways for communication and follow-up help avoid confusion. Data use for research and AI training must respect privacy and governance frameworks, with de-identification and oversight.
Forward Look: Photon Counting, Spectral Tricks, and Beyond
Several lines of development promise to reshape X-ray imaging over the next decade. Photon-counting detectors will migrate from niche systems into broader use, delivering energy-resolved data with improved spatial resolution and lower electronic noise. Spectral methods in radiography and CT will allow more precise material characterisation, from differentiating calcium types in stones to quantifying iodine uptake in tumours. Motion-tolerant acquisition and reconstruction will make free-breathing thoracic and cardiac CT more robust for patients who cannot perform breath-holds.
On the workflow side, real-time AI guidance will nudge operators toward optimal positioning and exposure in the moment. Automated measurements will populate structured reports that feed directly into clinical pathways, for example, fracture risk calculators or cancer staging templates. Integration with hospital command centres will smooth patient flow and reduce waiting times. As always, each new capability will require fresh thinking about dose, equity, training, and trust.
Case-Based Illustrations of Clinical Impact
Consider the classic ankle injury in a weekend football match. A carefully positioned mortise view can reveal a subtle fibular fracture and joint widening that would otherwise be missed, guiding timely splintage and orthopaedic review. In the chest clinic, a small round opacity on a screening radiograph triggers a low-dose CT that characterises it further and initiates a surveillance plan that prevents unnecessary surgery for benign nodules while expediting treatment for malignancy. In the catheter lab, fluoroscopic guidance for embolisation can control pelvic haemorrhage after trauma, saving a life within minutes. Each scenario draws on decades of physics, engineering, and clinical wisdom concentrated into a few seconds of imaging time.
Common Pitfalls and How They Are Avoided
Technical pitfalls recur. Rotation on a chest film can mimic cardiac enlargement or shift the mediastinum. Poor inspiration exaggerates basal markings, leading to overcalling of oedema. In the abdomen, inadequate collimation invites scatter and hides free air at the diaphragm. Grid cut-off produces uneven brightness. Awareness of such traps, combined with checklists and repeatable positioning routines, improves reliability. For CT, timing errors in contrast bolus delivery can obscure pulmonary emboli or vascular stenoses; modern protocols with bolus tracking reduce these misses. Keeping an eye on artefacts—from metal streaks to motion blur—helps separate physiology from physics.
United Kingdom Regulatory and Service Context
In the UK, the legal framework for ionising radiation is anchored by the Ionising Radiations Regulations 2017 and the Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations 2017. These define the responsibilities of employers, referrers, practitioners, and operators; require written procedures; and mandate recording, investigation, and learning from incidents. National guidance supports diagnostic reference levels that departments compare against regularly. Screening programmes, including the NHS Breast Screening Programme and lung health checks in selected regions, illustrate how imaging links with public health strategy. Workforce planning remains a live issue, with continued expansion of reporting radiographers and investment in training to meet demand.
Research Frontiers
At the research edge, phase-contrast and dark-field radiography attempt to exploit not only attenuation but also small-angle scattering and refraction, which may reveal soft-tissue microstructure beyond conventional methods. Micro-CT and synchrotron techniques inform pathology and materials science. In the clinic, radiomics extracts quantitative features from images that may correlate with tumour biology and treatment response. Prospective trials are beginning to test whether these signatures add real-world value beyond the human eye. Carefully designed datasets, transparent methods, and external validation will determine which ideas endure.
Patient Experience and Service Design
A successful imaging service is built around people. Clear appointment letters, simple wayfinding, and calm waiting spaces reduce stress. On arrival, the staff explain what will happen and how long it will take. For mammography, for example, discussing compression beforehand can reduce discomfort and improve cooperation. For children, play specialists and distraction techniques can transform a challenging visit into a manageable one. After imaging, timely reporting and clear communication with referrers ensure results lead to action.
Putting It All Together
When a clinician asks a focused question—Is the ankle fractured? Is there a pneumothorax? Is the bowel obstructed?—X-rays often provide the quickest, cheapest, and most accessible answer. When the question is more complex—What is the cause of chest pain in a haemodynamically stable adult?—CT may be the tool, still powered by X-rays but reconstructed into a volumetric map. The same physical principles underpin both ends of this spectrum. What changes are the geometry, the energy, the timing, the detector, and the processing? Threaded through everything is the ethic of doing only what is needed, with the least exposure required, and explaining the balance of benefit and risk in plain, compassionate language.
Conclusion
From a glow on a phosphorescent screen to global networks of digital images, medical X-rays have travelled a remarkable path. They have saved lives on battlefields and in quiet clinics, guided needles and stents with millimetre precision, and provided reassurance or early warning for millions. Their success rests on a partnership between physics and care: a mastery of photons and electrons placed in the service of human wellbeing. As detectors become more sensitive, reconstruction more intelligent, and workflows more connected, the core promise remains the same—to reveal the hidden, support sound decisions, and do so safely, swiftly, and fairly for every patient who needs it.
Disclaimer
The content in Beyond the Surface: Unlocking the Secrets of Medical X-Rays is provided for general informational and educational purposes only. It is not intended to serve as medical, diagnostic, or treatment advice and should not be relied upon as a substitute for consultation with qualified healthcare professionals. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy at the time of publication, neither the author(s) nor Open MedScience Review make any warranties, express or implied, regarding the completeness, reliability, or applicability of the information. Readers are responsible for verifying any details before acting upon them. References to regulations, guidelines, or technologies are based on the United Kingdom context unless otherwise stated, and may vary in other jurisdictions. Mention of specific products, equipment, or software does not constitute endorsement. Open MedScience Review and the author(s) disclaim liability for any loss, injury, or damage resulting from the use of the material herein.
How to cite: Open MedScience. Beyond the Surface: Unlocking the Secrets of Medical X-Rays. Open MedScience Review. 11 August 2025. Available at: https://www.openmedscience.com/beyond-the-surface-unlocking-the-secrets-of-medical-x-rays
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